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龍虛篇

盛夏之時,雷電擊折樹木,發壞室屋,俗謂天取龍,謂龍藏於樹木之中,匿於屋室之間也,雷電擊折樹木,發壞屋室,則龍見於外。龍見,雷取以升天。世無愚智賢不肖,皆謂之然。如考實之,虛妄言也。

夫天之取龍何意邪?如以龍神為天使,猶賢臣為君使也,反報有時,無為取也。如以龍遁逃不還,非神之行,天亦無用為也。

如龍之性當在天,在天上者固當生子,無為複在地。如龍有升降,降龍生子於地,子長大,天取之,則世名雷電為天怒,取龍之子, 無為怒也。

且龍之所居,常在水澤之中,不在木中屋間。何以知之?叔向之母曰:“深山大澤,實生龍蛇。”傳曰:“山致其高 ,雲雨起焉。水致其深,蛟龍生焉。”傳又言:“禹渡於江,黃龍負船。”“荊次非渡淮,兩龍繞舟。”“東海之上,有A丘欣,勇而有力,出過神淵 ,使禦者飲馬,馬飲因沒。欣怒,拔劍入淵追馬,見兩蛟方食其馬,手劍擊殺兩蛟。”由是言之,蛟與龍常在淵水之中,不在木中屋間明矣。

在淵水之中,則魚鱉之類。魚鱉之類,何為上天?天之取龍,何用為哉?如以天神乘龍而行,神恍惚無形,出入 無間,無為乘龍也。如仙人騎龍,天為仙者取龍,則仙人含天精氣,形輕飛騰,若鴻鵠之狀,無為騎龍也。

世稱黃帝騎龍升天,此言蓋虛,猶今謂天取龍也。 且世謂龍升天者,必謂神龍。不神,不升天;升天,神之效也。

天地之性,人為貴,則龍賤矣 。貴者不神,賤者反神乎?如龍之性有神與不神,神者升天,不神者不能。龜蛇亦有神與不神,神龜神蛇,複升天乎?

且龍稟何氣而獨神?天有倉龍、白虎、硃鳥、玄武之象也,地亦有龍、虎、鳥、龜之物。四星之精,降生四獸。虎鳥與龜不 神,龍何故獨神也?

人為倮蟲之長,龍為鱗蟲之長。俱為物長,謂龍升天,人複升天乎?龍與人同,獨謂能升天者,謂 龍神也。

世或謂聖人神而先知,猶謂神龍能升天也。因謂聖人先知之明,論龍之才,謂龍升天,故其宜也。

天地之間,恍惚無形,寒暑風雨之氣乃為神。今龍有形,有形則行,行則食,食則物之性也。天地之性,有形體之類,能行食之物 ,不得為神。何以言之。

龍有體也。傳曰:“鱗蟲三百,龍為之長。”龍為鱗蟲之長,安得無體?何以言之?

孔子曰:“龍食於清,遊於清。龜食於清;遊於濁;魚食於濁,遊於濁。丘上不及龍,下不為魚,中止其龜與!”

《山海經》言:四海之外,有乘龍蛇之人。世俗畫龍之象,馬首蛇尾。由此言之,馬、蛇之類也。

慎子曰:“蜚龍乘雲, 騰蛇遊霧,雲罷雨霽,與蚓蟻同矣。 ”

韓子曰:“龍之為蟲也,鳴可狎而騎也。然喉下有逆鱗尺餘,人或嬰之,必殺人矣。”

比之為蚓蟻,又言蟲可狎而騎,蛇、馬之類明矣。

傳曰:“紂作象箸而箕子泣。”泣之者,痛其極也。夫有象箸,必有玉杯。玉杯所盈,象箸所挾,則必龍肝豹胎。夫龍肝可食, 其龍難得。難得則愁下,愁下則禍生,故從而痛之。

如龍神,其身不可得殺,其肝何可得食?禽獸肝胎非一,稱龍肝豹胎者,人得食而知其味美也。

春秋之時,龍見於絳郊。魏獻 子問於蔡墨曰:“吾聞之,蟲莫智於龍,以其不生得也。謂之智,信乎?”對曰:“人實不知,非龍實智。古者畜龍,故國有豢龍氏, 有禦龍氏。”

獻子曰:“是二者,吾亦聞之,而不知其故。是何謂也?”對曰:“昔有飂叔〔安〕有裔子曰董父,實甚好龍,能求 其嗜欲以飲食之,龍多歸之。乃擾畜龍,以服事舜,而錫之姓曰董,氏曰豢龍,封諸鬲川,鬲夷氏是其後也。 故帝舜氏世有畜龍。

及有夏,孔甲擾於帝,帝賜之乘龍,河、漢各二,各有雌雄,孔甲不能食也,而未獲豢龍氏。有 陶唐氏既衰,其後有劉累學擾龍於豢龍氏,以事孔甲,能飲食龍。夏後嘉之,賜氏曰禦龍,以更豕韋之後。

龍一雌死,潛醢以食夏後.夏後〔亨〕之。既而使求, 懼而不得,遷於魯縣,範氏其後也。”

獻子曰:“今何故無之?”對曰:“夫物有其官,官修其方,朝夕思之。一日失職,則死及之,失官不食。官宿其業,其物乃至。若泯 棄之,物乃低伏,鬱湮不育。”

由此言之,龍可畜又可食也。可食之物,不能神矣。世無其官,又無董父、後劉之人,故潛藏伏匿,出見希疏 ;出又乘雲,與人殊路,人謂之神。如存其官而有其人,則龍,牛之類也,何神之有?

以《山海經》言之,以慎子、韓子證之,以俗世之畫驗之,以箕子之泣訂之,以蔡墨之對論之,知龍不能神,不能升天,天不以雷電取 龍,明矣。

世俗言龍神而升天者,妄矣。 世俗之言,亦有緣也。短書言:“龍無尺木,無以升天。”又曰“升天”,又言“尺木”,謂龍從木中升天也。彼短書之家, 世俗之人也。見雷電發時,龍隨而起,當雷電〔擊〕樹木之時,龍適與雷電俱在樹木之側,雷電去,龍隨而上,故謂從樹木之中升天也。實者雷龍同類 ,感氣相致。

故《易》曰:“雲從龍,風從虎。”又言:“虎嘯穀風至,龍興景雲起。”龍與雲相招,虎與風相致,故董仲舒雩祭之法,設土 龍以為感也。

夫盛夏太陽用事,雲雨幹之。太陽火也,雲雨水也,〔水〕火激薄則鳴而為雷。龍聞雷聲則起,起而雲至,雲至而龍乘之。雲 雨感龍,龍亦起雲而升天。天極雷高,雲消複降。人見其乘雲則謂“升天”,見天為雷電則為“天取龍”。

世儒讀《易 》文,見傳言,皆知龍者雲之類。拘俗人之議,不能通其說;又見短書為證,故遂謂“天取龍”。

天不取龍,龍不升天。當丘欣之殺兩蛟也,手把其尾,拽而出之至淵之外,雷電擊之。蛟則龍之類也。蛟龍見而雲雨至, 雲雨至則雷電擊。如以天實取龍,龍為天用,何以死蛟〔不〕為取之?

且魚在水中,亦隨雲雨,蜚而乘雲雨非升天也。龍,魚之類也,其乘雷電猶魚之飛也。魚隨雲雨,不謂之神,龍乘雷電獨謂之神。 世俗之言,失其實也。

物在世間,各有所乘。水蛇乘霧,龍乘雲,鳥乘風。見龍乘雲,獨謂之神,失龍之實,誣龍之能也。

然則龍之所以為神者,以能屈伸其體,存亡其形。屈伸其體,存亡其形,未足以為神也。

豫讓吞炭,漆身為厲,人不識其形。 子貢滅須為婦人,人不知其狀;龍變體自匿,人亦不能覺,變化藏匿者巧也。

物性亦有自然, 狌狌知往,乾鵲知來,鸚鵡能言,三怪比龍,性變化也。如以巧為神,豫讓、子貢神也。

孔子曰:“遊者可為網,飛者可為矰。至於龍也,吾不知其乘風雲上升。今日見老子,其猶龍乎!”

夫龍乘雲而上,雲消而下。 物類可察,上下可知;而雲孔子不知。以孔子之聖,尚不知龍,況俗人智淺,好奇之性,無實可之心,謂之龍神而升天,不足怪也。

Chapter XXIX. On Dragons (Lung-hsü).

When in midsummer during a thunder-storm lightning strikes a tree or demolishes a house, it is a common saying that Heaven fetches the dragon, which is believed to hide in the tree, or to be concealed in the house. The lightning striking the tree, or demolishing the house, the dragon appears outside. On its appearance, it is seized upon by the thunder, and carried up to Heaven. The unintelligent and the learned, the virtuous and the wicked are all agreed upon this, but trying to get at the truth, we find that it is idle talk.

Why should Heaven fetch the dragon? Provided that the dragon be a spirit and Heaven's envoy, as a virtuous minister is the deputy of his sovereign, then it ought to report itself at a fixed time, and would not have to be fetched. If, on the other hand, the dragon sneaks away, and does not come back, it does not behave like a spirit, and would be of no use to Heaven.

According to the dragon's nature its real abode is Heaven. Being there it certainly must have offspring. There would be no reason, why it should be on earth again. If there are rising and descending dragons, the latter class might bear its offspring on earth, and Heaven fetch it, when grown up. People call a tempest an expression of Heaven's anger, but in fetching the scion of a dragon it cannot be angry.

Further the dragon generally lives in ponds, not in trees or houses. Whence do we know that? Shu Hsiang's1 mother said: "In the depths of mountains and in vast marshes dragons and snakes really grow." 2 And in books we read, "Where the mountains are highest, the rain clouds rise, and where the water is deepest, the different species of dragons are born." 3 The annals go on to say that, when crossed the Yangtse, a yellow dragon carried his boat on its back, 4 and that, when Ching Tse Fei went over the Huai, two dragons swam round his ship. Near the Eastern Sea 5 there lived Lu Chiu Hsin, a bold and strong man. When he once passed the Spirit Pool, he ordered his charioteer to give his horse to drink there, but when it drank, it sank down. Lu Chiu Hsin got angry, drew his sword, and went into the pool in pursuit of his horse. He then beheld two dragons just in the act of devouring his horse. Sword in hand, he slew the two dragons. 6 Hence it is evident that the dragons called "chiao"7 and the others always live in the water of pools, and not on trees or in houses.

Living in deep water dragons belong to the same category as fish and reptiles. Why should fish and reptiles ascend to Heaven, and what could Heaven use the dragon for, if it fetched it up? If the Spirit of Heaven should ride on the dragon, a spirit is something diffuse and incorporeal. Entering and departing, it needs no aperture, neither would it require a dragon to ride upon. Should the genii mount the dragon, then Heaven would fetch it for their sake. But the genii are imbued with the fluid of Heaven, and their bodies are so light, that they can fly up like wild geese. Therefore, why should they ride upon dragons?

People in general say that Huang Ti ascended to Heaven on a dragon. This statement is as inane as the other, made now-adays, that Heaven fetches the dragon. If the dragon is said to rise to Heaven, it implies a dragon spirit, because only a spirit can soar on high, this being in fact a characteristic feature of spirits.

Among the creatures produced by Heaven and Earth man being the noblest, the dragon must be inferior. If the noblest are not spirits, can the inferior be so? Let us suppose that the nature of dragons be such, that some of them are spirits, the others not, and that the spirits rise to Heaven, while those that are not spirits, cannot: are turtles and snakes likewise partly spirits and partly not, and can the turtle spirits and the snake spirits ascend to Heaven?

Moreover, what essence is the dragon endowed with, that it should alone be a spirit? Heaven has the four constellations of the Blue Dragon, the White Tiger, the Scarlet Bird, and the Black Tortoise. Earth also has dragons, tigers, scarlet birds, and turtles. The essence of the four constellations pouring down, produces those four animals. The tiger, the scarlet bird, and the turtle not being spirits, wherefore should the dragon alone be a spirit?

Man ranks first among the naked creatures, as the dragon is the foremost of the scaly animals. Both take the first place among their kindred. If the dragon is believed to ascend to Heaven, does man rise to Heaven likewise? If under the above respect the dragon is on the same level with man, but alone credited with the faculty of ascending to Heaven, the dragon must be supposed to be a spirit.

The world also says that the sages being spirits, have the gift of prophecy, as they say that the dragon spirits are able to soar to Heaven. The divination of the sages thus being accounted for, it is but natural that the special talent of the dragon should be found in its power to rise to Heaven.

That which amidst Heaven and Earth is vague and unsubstantial as the vapours of cold and heat, wind and rain, has the nature of a spirit. Now the dragon has a body, having a body, it moves about, moving about, it eats, and eating, it has the nature of other creatures. According to the organisation of Heaven and Earth whatever possesses a body, moves about, and eats, cannot be a spirit. How so?

The dragon has a body. One finds in books the statement, that out of the three hundred scaly animals the dragon is the first. Being the first of the scaly animals, how can it be without a body?

Confucius said that the dragon fed in limpid places, and lived there, that the tortoise fed in limpid places, and lived in the mud, and that the fish fed in the mud, and lived in clear water. He did not attain to the dragon himself, but was neither equal to the fish, he was only to be compared to the tortoise, which takes the middle rank.

The Shan-hai-king8 relates that beyond the four seas there are men riding on dragon snakes. As a rule, dragons are pictorially represented with a horse's head and a snake's tail. Hence they must be hybrids between the horse and the snake.

Shên Tse9 informs us that the flying dragons mount the clouds, and that the soaring serpents ramble through the fog. When the clouds disperse, and the rain ceases, they are like earthworms and ants.

Han Fei Tse10 teaches that the dragon is a reptile, which obeys a call, and allowes itself to be patted and mounted. But under its throat it has a protruding scale over a foot long. If a man knocks against it, the dragon always kills him.

In short, the dragon is compared with earthworms and ants, and it is further said to be a reptile, which can be patted and mounted. It must therefore have something in common with snakes and horses.

It is reported that when Chou11 used ivory chopsticks, 12Chi Tse13 burst into tears. He wept, commiserating his excesses. There being ivory chopsticks, there must have been jade cups also. These jade cups and ivory chopsticks were certainly used to hold and to seize dragon liver and unborn leopard. 14 Dragon liver was eatable, but a dragon hard to be found. This being the case, the emperor would frown upon his subordinates. That would bring them into distress, therefore Chi Tse's sympathy.

If the dragon were a spirit, its body could not be killed, and its liver not be eaten. The livers and the unborn young of birds and animals are not the same. Dragon liver and unborn leopard being specially mentioned, man must have eaten them, and thereby learned to appreciate their excellent taste.

During the epoch of Spring and Autumn, 15 a dragon appeared in the outskirts of Chiang.16 Viscount Hsien of Wei17 interrogated T`sai Mê18 saying, "I heard say that of all creatures none is as intelligent as the dragon, which therefore cannot be caught alive. Is it true what they say about its cleverness?" The other replied, "Those that say so, really do not know. As a fact, the dragon is not intelligent. Of old, dragons were domesticated, therefore the empire had its families of Dragon Keeper (Huan Lung) and its Master of the Dragons (Yü Lung)." 19

Viscount Hsien observed that of these two he had heard also, but did not know their origin, and why they were called so. Ts`ai Mê said, "In olden time there was Shu Sung20 of Liao.21 One of his distant descendants, Tung Fu was very fond of dragons. He could find out their tastes and likings, so as to be able to supply them with food and drink. Many dragons came to him, and were thus bred by him. With them he waited upon Shun, who bestowed upon him the family name of Tung, and the clan-name of Dragon Keeper (Huan Lung), and invested him with Tsung-ch`uan. The Tsung-J family were his descendants. Thus dragons were reared at the time of the emperor Shun."

"During the Hsia time K`ung Chia22 was obedient to God, who presented him with a team of dragons from the Yellow River and the Han, there being a male and a female from each. K`ung Chia was at a loss how to feed them, for no member of the Huan Lung family was to be found. But among the remains of the T`ao T`ang23 family, which had perished, was one Liu Lei, who had learned the art of rearing dragons from the Huan Lung family. With that he served K`ung Chia, and was able to give food and water to the dragons. The Hsia ruler was so pleased with him, that he conferred upon him the clan-name of Master of the Dragons (Yü Lung). He took the place of the descendants of Shih Wei." 24

"When one female dragon died, he secretly had it chopped up, and offered the meat to the ruling emperor of the house of Hsia as food. The emperor had it cooked, and asked for more. Then Liu Lei became frightened, because he could not procure it, and emigrated to Lu-hsien.25 The Fan family were his descendants."---

Viscount Hsien asked, why there were no dragons to-day. Ts`ai Mê replied, "Such animals have their officials, who know their treatment, and think of them day and night. When they suddenly lose their post, the dragons die. The cashiered functionaries do not feed them any more. As long as the competent officials do their duty, there are always animals coming to them, but, when they are neglected, they lie down listless, and their production is stopped." 26 ---

Thus we may say that dragons can be reared and eaten. What can be eaten, is certainly not a spirit. When the proper officials are not at hand, nor men like Tung Fu and Liu Lei, the dragons abscond, and hide themselves, and appear but rarely. When they once come out, they also ride on the clouds, a course, man can never take, and are then regarded as spirits. As long as there are the proper officials, or the proper men, the dragon is like an ox. Why should they be spirits?

Taking into consideration what the Shan-hai-king says, the evidence of Shên Tse and Han Fei Tse, the usual pictorial representations, the despair of Chi Tse, and the information given by Ts`ai Mê, we see that the dragon cannot be a spirit, nor rise to Heaven, and it is evident that Heaven does not fetch it with thunder and lightning.

The common belief that the dragon is a spirit, and rises to Heaven, is preposterous. But there is a reason for it. In light literature we meet with the statement that without a tree one foot high the dragon cannot ascend to Heaven. They speak of ascending to Heaven, and of a tree one foot high, implying that the dragon rises to Heaven from within the tree. The authors of this sort of literature are uncultured people. They have observed that at the same time, when the thunder rolls and the lightning flashes up, the dragon rises, and when thunder and lightning strike a tree, the dragon happens to be close to the tree, just like thunder and lightning. When they are gone, the dragon rises on high likewise. Therefore they pretend that it ascends to Heaven from within the tree. As a matter of fact, the thunder and the dragon are of the same kind, and mutually attract one another, when set in motion by the forces of nature.

The Yiking says that the clouds follow the dragon, and the wind the tiger. It is further stated that, when the tiger howls, the wind passes through the valley, and that the variegated clouds rise, when the dragon gambols. 27 There is a certain manner of sympathy between the dragon and the clouds, and a mutual attraction between the tiger and the wind. Therefore, when TungChung Shu28 offered the rain sacrifice, he put up an earthen dragon with a view to attract the rain.

When the summer is at its height, the sun reigns supreme, but the clouds and the rain oppose it. The sun is fire, clouds and rain being water. At the collision with water, fire explodes, and gives a sound, which is the thunder. Upon hearing the sound of thunder, the dragon rises, when it rises, the clouds appear, and when they are there, the dragon mounts them. The clouds and the rain are affected by the dragon, and the dragon also rides on the clouds to Heaven. Heaven stretches to the farthest distance, and the thunder is very high. Upon the clouds dispersing, the dragon alights again. Men seeing it riding on the clouds, believe it to ascend to Heaven, and beholding Heaven sending forth thunder and lightning, they imagine that Heaven fetches the dragon.

The scholars of to-day reading the Yiking and the historical records, all know that the dragon belongs to the same class as the clouds. They adhere to the common gossip without knowing, what it means. Besides they look upon the light literature as an authority. Thus they say that Heaven fetches the dragon.

Heaven does not do that, nor does the dragon rise to Heaven. When Lu Chiu Hsin slew the two serpents, he dragged them out with his hands by the tail, but the moment they were out of the pool, a thunder-bolt fell. Serpents are a species similar to dragons. When serpents or dragons make their appearance, clouds and rain arrive, upon their arrival there is thunder and lightning. If Heaven really fetched the dragon for its own use, what benefit would it have from dead serpents?

Fish, though living in the water, yet follow the clouds and the rain flying, and riding on them ascend to Heaven. The dragon belongs to the class of fish, it rides on thunder and lightning in the same way as the fish fly. For following the clouds and the rain, fish are not considered to be spirits, the dragons alone are called spirits because of their riding on thunder and lightning. This common belief is contrary to truth.

All the creatures in the world have their peculiar vehicles:--- The water serpents ride on the fog, the dragons on the clouds, and birds on the wind. To call the dragon alone a spirit, because it is seen riding on the clouds, would not be in accordance with its real nature, and would only detract from its skill.

But the reason why the dragon is looked upon as a spirit is, because it can expand and contract its body, and make itself visible or invisible. Yet the expansion and contraction of the body and its visibility and invisibility do not constitute a spirit.

Yü Jang29 swallowed charcoal and varnished his body, so that he got ulcers, and nobody recognised him. Tse Kung30 burned off his beard, and took the semblance of a woman, so that nobody knew him. When the dragon transforms itself and absconds, men are also unable to perceive it, such is its skill in metamorphosing and hiding itself.

Much in the nature of creatures is spontaneous:---The rhinopithecus 31 knows the past, 32 magpies foresee the future, 33 and parrots can talk. These three peculiarities may be compared to the transformations, which are in the nature of dragons. If by astuteness one could become a spirit, Yü Jang and Tse Kung would be spirits.

Confucius said, "The roving animals can be ensnared, the flying birds be shot with an arrow. As regards the dragon, I do not know, whether it can ride on the wind and the clouds, and thus rise on high. To-day I saw Lao Tse. Should he perhaps be like a dragon?" 34

Provided that the dragon rises, mounted on a cloud, and, when the cloud disperses, comes down again, then the class of creatures, to which it belongs, might be ascertained, and all about its celestial and terrestrial state known. Yet they say that Confucius did not know. A sage like Confucius ignored the nature of dragons. How much less can common people know, whose learning is deficient, who are biassed in favour of the marvellous, and whose minds are unable to decide, what is possible and what not. That they should call the dragon a spirit, which rises to Heaven can therefore be no matter for surprise.

Notes

1. A minister in Chin, 6th cent. b.c.

2. Quoted from the Tso-chuan, Duke Hsiang 21st year (Legge, Classics Vol. V, Pt. II, p. 491). The mother of Shu Hsiang spoke these words in a figurative sense, with reference to Shu Hsiang's half-brother, and his beautiful mother, a concubine of her husband. Cf. p. 302.

3. A parallel passage, worded a little differently, occurs in Hsün Tse.

4. This fact is recorded in the Lü Shih ch`un-ch`iu and in Huai Nan Tse VII, 8v. Vid. also Lun-hêng Bk. V, p. 4 (Yi-hsü).

5. The Yellow Sea, east of China.

6. This story is narrated in the Han-shih-wai-chuan 150 b.c. and the Po-wuchih, where the hero is called Tsai Chiu Hsin however.

7. .

8. The "Mountain and Sea Classic," the oldest geographical work of the 4th or the 3rd cent. b.c.

9. The Taoist philosopher Shên Tao of the 5th cent. b.c., of whose works only fragments are left.

10. Cf. p. 170.

11. Chou Hsin, the last emperor of the Shang dynasty.

12. Ivory chopsticks are very common in China now, and no luxury.

13. Viscount Chi, one of the foremost nobles under Chou Hsin, 12th cent. b.c.

14. Dragon liver and unborn leopard would seem to have been considered great delicacies.

15. The historical period comprised by the Ch`un-ch`iu (Spring and Autumn) between 722 and 481 b.c.

16. A principality in Shansi.

17. A feudal lord under Duke Ch`ou of Chin in Shansi, 530-524 b.c., whose successors became marquises, and at last kings of Wei.

18. The grand historiographer.

19. The family names Huan Lung and Yü Lung, which literally mean Dragon Keeper and Master of the Dragons, have probably given rise to this queer story.

20. The Lun-hêng calls the man Shu Sung. In the Tso-chuan his name is Shu An.

21. A small State.

22. The emperor K`ung Chia 1879-1848 b.c.

23. T`ao T`ang was the princedom of the emperor Yao in Shansi, whose descendants took their clan name therefrom.

24. A noble who flourished under the Shang dynasty.

25. The modern Lu-shan-hsien in Honan.

26. This conversation between Viscount Hsien and T`sai Mê on the rearing of dragons in ancient times is literally culled from the Tso-chuan, Duke Ch`ao 29th year. Cf. Legge, Ch`un-ch`iu Pt. II, p. 731.

27. Yiking Book I, Ch`ien hexagram (No. 1). See also p. 279 Note 2.

28. A scholar of the 2nd cent. b.c. See p. 39.

29. A native of the Chin State, 5th and 6th cent. b.c. He twice made an attempt upon the life of Viscount Hsiang of Chao to avenge the death of his master, the Earl of Chih, whom Hsiang had slain. Both attempts failed. The second time he disguised himself in the way described here.

30. A disciple of Confucius.

31. A kind of monkey in western China.

32. This probably means that monkeys have an excellent memory.

33. Magpies are believed to know, whether the next year will be very stormy, for in that case they build their nests near the ground. Moreover, they announce future joy, hence their popular name "birds of joy."

34. A quotation from the Biography of Lao Tse in the Shi-chi chap. 63, p. 2v.

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